Hypermedia, Internet Communication, and the Challenge of Redefining Literacy in the Electronic Age

This paper argues that the dominant hypermedia models of electronic literacy are too limited to do justice to new media and changing views of literacy in the electronic age, especially in terms of their recourse to postmodern theories of representation. Such models tend to interpret the use of digital media in relation to readers or users of information viewed as producers or constructors of their own meaning and identity (e.g., Bolter & Grusin, 1999; Landow, 1992; Poster, 1995). Such a perspective on the move from print to electronic literacy generally does not distinguish between the literal intention of an author or designer and a rhetorical strategy which frames and elicits responses by an audience or the "receivers" of communication, in short, a view of electronic media as ultimately a source of contingent or accidental meaning and discrete texts of information. A critique will be made of the limitations and contradictions of a general hypermedia perspective as a basis for engaging with and going beyond--not rejecting or denying-the often innovative and useful contributions of hypermedia theorists to seek a more integrated, relevant, and grounded theory of electronic literacy in terms of a communications approach. This article thus attempts to practice as well as reflect the kind of "dialogical" approach to knowledge and human interaction advocated by Ricoeur when, for instance, challenging Derrida's poststructuralist delineation of writing and speaking as separate systems of communication (Ricoeur, 1976, 1978)--Derrida being one of the key references for a general hypermedia perspective. On this basis, it suggests that a "rhetoric of design" is perhaps a missing link providing a convergent focus for developing further an inclusive framework of electronic literacy which incorporates Internet communication as well as hypertext and interactive multimedia. INTRODUCTION: THE CONFLICT OF PARADIGMS FOR EMERGENT NOTIONS OF "ELECTRONIC LITERACY" The new electronic media of multimedia interfaces and networked computers have provoked much discussion about literacy and cultural transformations comparable to those effected by the printing press (e.g., Birkerts, 1994; Nunberg, 1996). However, in the same way that the term literacy may be interpreted as fundamentally either a language process mediating information or one of interactive communication, so too, the Internet may be perceived to represent either an information or communications revolution. Just as emergent popular representations of the Internet were typified by an "information superhighway" metaphor, so too, academic references have tended to focus on the informational uses of the Internet as a great database (Poster, 1995; Roszak, 1994). The facility of the Internet for human communication tended to be seen as secondary and even frivolous--in part because the early synchronous Internet communication programs were mainly for purposes of role-playing games and social chat (e.g., Reid, 1996; Rheingold, 1994). However, as more sophisticated uses of Internet communication were developed in the 1990s for purposes of education, e-commerce, and everyday communication, there was an increased general recognition that informational uses of new electronic media or telecommunications ever involve processes of interaction, communication, and even human community (Castells, 1996; Pavlik, 1998). This is evidenced by how the previously dominant generic Cameron Richards Hypermedia, Internet Communication, and the Challenge of ... Language Learning & Technology 55 term for interactive electronic media, Information Technology (or simply IT), is now increasingly being replaced by Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) and even Communication and Information Technologies (CITs). Extending the concept of "hypertext" to include electronic multimedia effects such as digitized sounds and images, hypermedia models of electronic literacy also began emerging in the 1980s in part as an optimistic riposte to pessimistic projections about the effect of computers, information technology, and electronic media generally on a younger generation (Birkerts, 1994; Postman, 1992; Roszak, 1994). For instance, Richard Lanham's (1993) notions of hypertext directly responded to Neil Postman's (1992) pessimistic notion that new electronic literacies represent a corruption of the typographic mind and an extension of the insidious influences of popular American television culture: new generations of youth growing up as passive consumers of media, and lacking the senses of interiority, depth, and memory held to be a function of print literacy. From the beginning, proponents of the hypermedia model of electronic literacy saw a natural affinity between this model and postmodern theory in general, and the poststructuralist literary and language theories of Derrida in particular. Following Derrida, the networked links of hypertext were seen to be defined in opposition to principles of hierarchy, sequence, and autonomous meanings (Landow, 1992, pp. 8-26). Similarly, the concept of hypermedia reflected the increasing importance of nonverbal signs, and especially electronic images, in the changing semiotic systems of human communication (Bolter, 1991a, pp. 195-206). Thus, the hypermedia model of electronic literacy also represents a range of aesthetic, critical, and subjective agendas which ostensibly counter a narrow "information technology" focus on both data and technological skills in a vacuum. Nevertheless, as suggested by the use of postmodernist frameworks which prefer to focus on images, signs, and representational forms per se rather than actual dialogue or interaction in context, it remains ultimately framed by an informational rather than communications context for interpreting the literacy, language, and cultural implications of the new electronic media. This paper will argue that hypermedia models of interaction with, and communication of, information may be innovative and useful in many respects, but tend to be too narrow, too selective, and too selfcontradictory in terms of their recourse to postmodern theories of representation to do justice to the concept of "electronic literacy." It will suggest that a general hypermedia framework inadvertently reinforces some of the very traditional print paradigms of disembodied or abstract knowledge and privileged education which it tends to set up as its critical "other." But instead of merely rejecting this framework, the discussion below incorporates it as an important and even crucial platform for a more integrated and relevant theory of electronic literacy in terms of a move from viewing both literacy and electronic media in the context of a communications rather than informational perspective. A communications perspective, it will be suggested, offers a potentially more useful framework for interpreting and accounting for the various implications and uses of Internet "hybridity" encapsulated by both hypertext and hypermedia--in particular, the blurring of relations between reading and writing, and between verbal and visual media of textuality. In terms of a transition from text-based uses of the Internet to graphic and multi-media interfaces, the challenge of developing a more relevant generic typology of Internet communication provides an exemplary focus for articulating a communications framework for electronic literacy and learning in general. Like the hypertext theorists, proponents of Internet communication have usefully challenged those critics who see the Internet and related digital media as inherently alienating and superficial (Johnson, 1997; Turkle, 1996). However, while the hypermedia framework tends to rationalize Internet communication as a sort of secondary or add-on feature of the Internet, often ignoring the "interactive" functions of virtual community and electronic dialogue, this article will further argue that a communications model also incorporates the concepts and functions of hypertext and other aspects or functions of information technology. Cameron Richards Hypermedia, Internet Communication, and the Challenge of ... Language Learning & Technology 56 THE LIMITATIONS AND CONTRADICTIONS OF HYPERMEDIA MODELS: A BASIS FOR DEVELOPING NEW AND MORE INTEGRATED FRAMEWORKS OF ELECTRONIC